today’s episode, I hope that we will conclude this discussion. The second front was the battle against the Persian Empire. At the same time, there was another front against the Roman Empire.
The Roman Empire launched an expedition against the Muslims. The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) was the first to initiate communication with them, sending a letter to the Roman Emperor. Later, as we see in history and the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), significant events occurred—first, the Battle of Mu’tah, and later, the Battle of Tabuk.
After the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) passed away, Abu Bakr As-Siddiq (may God be pleased with him) became the Caliph. During his leadership, an expedition was sent against the Romans. However, the decisive battle—the Battle of Yarmouk—took place during the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab (may God be pleased with him).
Through the Battle of Yarmouk, the regions of Sham (the Levant) came under the rule of the Muslim Caliphate. This was a historical turning point. The Battle of Yarmouk is one of the most significant battles in Islamic history.
At that time, Abu Bakr As-Siddiq (may God be pleased with him) had dispatched the army, but he passed away before the battle concluded. The victory of the Battle of Yarmouk came during the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab (may God be pleased with him).
We have already discussed the biography of Abu Bakr As-Siddiq (may God be pleased with him) and the Battle of Yarmouk in detail in our previous series, so I will not repeat those discussions now.
Today’s discussion will focus on the campaigns that Umar ibn al-Khattab (may God be pleased with him) led against the Roman Empire during his caliphate.
Before diving into the details, we need to clarify one important point: In various Hadiths, we find mentions of “Romans.” But what is meant by the term “Romans” or “Rum”? Does it refer to a political entity, a geographical area, or a specific group of people?
In Arabic, “Rum” refers to an ethnic group, not a specific land. Today, those whom we refer to as the white-skinned people of Europe—commonly known as Caucasians—were historically referred to as “Rum” in Arabic. Thus, in Hadith literature, the term “Romans” does not signify a particular empire, state, or geographical region. Instead, it refers to a specific ethnic group, regardless of where they reside.
During the time of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and his companions, not all white-skinned people lived in Europe alone. Regions like Lebanon and Jordan, though not considered part of Europe geographically, were inhabited by people classified as “Rum.” Egypt, located in Africa, was also under Roman control at that time.
The Roman Empire of that period was vast and divided into two major parts:
- The Western Roman Empire, governed by the Emperor.
- The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, governed by Emperor Heraclius, with Constantinople as its capital.
Today, the descendants of the Romans—Caucasians—are not limited to Europe alone. They are found across the world, including Russia, Siberia, America, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand.
The Hadiths of the Last Days describe events involving the Romans as an ethnic group. Many of these Romans will eventually accept Islam, yet conflicts will continue between the Muslims and those who reject Islam among them. Leadership during these trials will be crucial.
The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) informed us through authentic Hadiths about one of the most severe battles of the end times, known as the Battle of Al-Hamah. This battle will take place between the Muslims and the Romans.
According to a narration in Sahih Muslim, many of the Romans will accept Islam and join the Muslims. When the confrontation begins, both sides will line up in a place called Dabiq or A’maq in Syria. At that point, the Romans will approach the Muslims and say, “Separate those among you who are from our people, whom you have captured.”
Some of the Romans, having accepted Islam, will stand united with the Muslims. The Romans who reject Islam will demand that the Muslims hand over these new converts. However, the Muslims will respond firmly, saying, “By Allah, we will never separate from our brothers.”
This future battle will not be a nationalist or racial war. It will not be Arabs versus non-Arabs or a conflict based on geographical divisions like Europeans against Asians. Rather, it will be a battle defined by faith. The Muslims will affirm that those Romans who embraced Islam are now their brothers, and they will refuse to hand them over under any circumstances.
Although they were ethnically Romans, once they accepted Islam, they became part of the Muslim Ummah. Therefore, the Muslims said, “They are our brothers, and we will never hand over our brothers to anyone.”
It is well known that during that era, the major wars were fought against two superpowers: the Persian Empire and the Roman Empire. However, these wars were never based on nationalism or ethnicity. They were not wars of Arabs versus Persians or Arabs versus Romans. Rather, they were ideological battles fought to remove oppression, establish justice, and spread the message of Islam.
After the decisive Battle of Yarmouk, the next significant victory for the Muslims against the Roman Empire was the conquest of Damascus.
Damascus is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in human history. It held immense strategic and political importance at that time. The city was heavily fortified, surrounded by high security walls and many defensive fortresses. The Romans had invested great efforts into making Damascus nearly impossible to conquer.
During the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him), Muslim armies were sent towards the lands of Ash-Sham (Greater Syria) with the command to lay siege to Damascus and other nearby Roman strongholds, including Homs. The conquest of Damascus was vital for establishing Muslim control in the region.
The siege of Damascus was led by the noble Companion, Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah (may Allah be pleased with him). It is important to note that the climate of Syria was quite different from the Arabian Peninsula. While the desert regions were hot and dry, the weather in Sham, especially during winter, could become extremely cold, even snowy in some areas.
The Roman soldiers anticipated that the harsh winter would force the Muslims to lift the siege, believing that the desert-dwelling Muslims would not be able to withstand the freezing temperatures. However, by the will of Allah, the Muslims demonstrated remarkable patience and resilience.
Historical narrations mention that during those freezing months, Roman soldiers guarded the city walls wearing warm boots and winter clothing, while the Sahaba (may Allah be pleased with them) endured the winter wearing simple sandals, refusing to retreat or lift the siege.
An incident occurred during this time that presented an unexpected opportunity for the Muslims. The Roman governor of Damascus had a son born to him. To celebrate the occasion, he organized a grand Walima (banquet) and invited all the prominent figures of the city to attend.
They celebrated the event with food, drink, and entertainment, as was their custom. Meanwhile, the city remained under siege, and the Roman soldiers, after days of indulgence, became negligent and intoxicated, losing control over themselves and the city’s security.
The Muslim commander, Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah (may Allah be pleased with him), was leading the siege, assisted by other prominent commanders such as Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan (may Allah be pleased with him) and others. The army was strategically divided, with different groups stationed at various gates and entry points around Damascus, as the city had multiple gates.
One of the great generals, Khalid ibn al-Walid (may Allah be pleased with him), received intelligence about the banquet and the Roman governor’s preoccupation with celebrations. Realizing that the Roman soldiers were now in a state of drunkenness and negligence, Khalid ibn al-Walid prepared to seize the opportunity to break through the city defenses.
Khalid ibn al-Walid (may Allah be pleased with him) recognized this as a golden opportunity. While the Roman governor and his people were busy celebrating the birth of the governor’s son, indulging in festivities, drinking, and completely negligent of the siege, Khalid ibn al-Walid (may Allah be pleased with him) and the Muslim army took decisive action to conquer Damascus.
In order to bring an end to the prolonged siege, they devised a plan. The Muslim forces constructed makeshift fortifications and ladders to scale the massive defensive walls of Damascus. Khalid ibn al-Walid (may Allah be pleased with him), along with a small group of brave Companions, including Miqdad ibn Amr (may Allah be pleased with him), climbed the walls under the cover of darkness.
Though they were few in number, this courageous group played an essential role in securing a breakthrough. Upon entering the city, they loudly proclaimed Takbeer — shouting “Allahu Akbar” — which echoed throughout Damascus. Historical narrations mention that Miqdad ibn Amr’s (may Allah be pleased with him) voice was so powerful on the battlefield that it could terrify thousands.
The cries of Takbeer shook the hearts of the Romans inside the city, plunging them into panic and breaking their morale. Realizing their vulnerable position, the Roman governor hastily approached Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah (may Allah be pleased with him), who was leading the Muslim forces, and expressed his willingness to surrender and negotiate peace.
At the beginning of the siege, the Muslims had presented the Romans with three options:
- Accept Islam and join the Muslim community.
- Remain on their faith but pay Jizyah (a tax for protection and exemption from military service).
- Engage in battle.
With the Romans now ready to surrender, Abu Ubaydah (may Allah be pleased with him) accepted their offer of peace based on the agreed terms. The city was partially conquered through a peace treaty and partially through military victory, and accordingly, different rules were applied to different areas of Damascus.
The city’s grand church, located in the center of Damascus, was divided into two parts:
- One half was considered conquered through military action, so it was converted into a mosque.
- The other half, surrendered peacefully, remained a church.
Later in history, Muslims purchased the remaining portion from the Christians, and the entire complex was transformed into a mosque, known as Al-Masjid Al-Umawi (The Umayyad Mosque) — one of the oldest and most significant mosques in the Muslim world.
This incident highlights an important lesson: while the Roman commander was busy celebrating and careless, Khalid ibn al-Walid (may Allah be pleased with him) and the Muslim army remained vigilant, disciplined, and ever-ready for opportunities. It is narrated that Khalid ibn al-Walid himself rarely slept, always keeping his army prepared and alert, and this constant readiness led to their success.
Prior to this campaign, Khalid ibn al-Walid (may Allah be pleased with him) had been sent from Iraq to Sham (Greater Syria) upon the request of Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah (may Allah be pleased with him). Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him) advised that while the veterans from Iraq should return, Khalid should remain in Sham, recognizing that his leadership and military genius would be essential in these campaigns.
Following the conquest of Damascus, one of the next significant victories in the region was the peaceful conquest of Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis). The people of Jerusalem agreed to surrender but requested that the keys to the city be handed over directly to the Caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him).
Honoring this request, Umar ibn al-Khattab personally traveled to Jerusalem, where he received the keys to the city, marking a historic moment of Muslim conquest achieved with justice, wisdom, and minimal bloodshed.
After the conquest of Damascus, one of the most significant events was the peaceful surrender of Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis). The Christians signed the famous Al-‘Uhud wa Al-Wathīqah (Treaty of Protection), which granted religious freedom and security to the Christian inhabitants of the city. We discussed the terms of that treaty in a previous session, highlighting how the Islamic state guaranteed religious freedom, protection of property, and rights for non-Muslims living under Muslim rule. At this point, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor Heraclius, who had been monitoring the situation from Constantinople, realized the critical condition of Roman authority in the Levant. Following the fall of Damascus and other territories, Heraclius left his stronghold in Constantinople and traveled to Antioch, located in present-day Turkey, to assess the war situation.
The Muslim commander Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah (may Allah be pleased with him) grew concerned when Heraclius positioned himself so close to the Muslim-controlled areas. Fearing a possible large-scale counterattack, Abu Ubaydah wrote to the Caliph, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him), seeking guidance and reinforcements.
However, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him), through his wisdom and insight, reassured Abu Ubaydah. He famously responded that the arrival of Heraclius in Antioch was not a cause for fear but rather a sign of Roman desperation and decline. Abu Bakr wrote:
“Do not be afraid. This is good news. He has come because they have lost hope in their lands. His presence there is not a threat, but a confirmation of their weakness.”
Indeed, events unfolded exactly as Abu Bakr had predicted. The Muslims, by the will of Allah, successfully consolidated control over most of the Levant, including strategic cities like Hims (Emesa) and other key strongholds.
Realizing that the Roman Empire had irreversibly lost control over Sham (Levant), Heraclius departed from Antioch and returned to Constantinople. As he was leaving, history records his sorrowful words:
“Farewell, O Syria. Farewell, O land of my ancestors. I will never set eyes upon you again. I am handing you over to your enemies.”
Heraclius’ departure marked the end of Roman dominance in most of the Levant.
Despite these heavy losses, the Byzantine Empire was not entirely wiped out like the Persian Empire. The Muslims, through these conquests, effectively split the Byzantine Empire:
- The central regions, especially the Levant, were incorporated into the Islamic Caliphate.
- Western regions, including parts of Europe, Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), and sections of North Africa, remained under Byzantine control for centuries.
Unlike the Persian Empire, which was eventually erased completely from political existence by Muslim victories, the Byzantine (Roman) Empire retained its presence in some regions. History shows that they continued to exist in varying forms until the eventual fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE at the hands of Sultan Mehmed II (the Conqueror) of the Ottoman Empire.
The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) foretold that there would be continued interaction, conflict, and even conversions from among the Romans (Byzantines) until the end of time. This dynamic has been evident throughout history, where some Romans embraced Islam while others remained adversaries.
Although geographically Egypt belongs to Africa, politically, at the time, Egypt was a province under the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, governed by Muqawqis, a title referring to the local Coptic Christian ruler, often linked with Cyrus of Alexandria in historical records.
Previous Interaction with Muqawqis:
- During the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), letters of invitation to Islam were sent to major world rulers, including Muqawqis, the governor of Egypt.
- Unlike the Persian emperor or the Roman Caesar, Muqawqis neither accepted nor outright rejected the invitation.
- Instead, he showed diplomatic courtesy, sent gifts to the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), including:
- Maria al-Qibtiyya, who became the Prophet’s wife
- Other presents like clothing and livestock
- His stance was one of cautious neutrality but not true acceptance of Islam.
Umar ibn al-Khattab’s Strategic Caution:
- After the Muslim conquests of Sham (Levant) and Jerusalem, Amr ibn al-As(May God be pleased with him) proposed advancing westward into Egypt to bring the region under Islamic governance.
- Initially, Umar ibn al-Khattab(May God be pleased with him) was hesitant for several reasons:
- Full control of Sham wasn’t yet consolidated
- Internal challenges like:
- The Year of Famine (عام الرمادة) in the Arabian Peninsula
- The Plague of Amwas, which claimed the lives of many prominent companions in the Levant
- These hardships made Umar cautious about overextending Muslim forces.
Permission to Conquer Egypt
- After stabilizing the situation in Sham, and seeing the vulnerability of Roman authority in Egypt, Umar(May God be pleased with him) finally granted Amr ibn al-As(May God be pleased with him) permission to proceed.
The Campaign and the Nile:
- Amr ibn al-As(May God be pleased with him) led the expedition toward Egypt.
- They advanced along the Nile River, which provided natural access to many settlements with minimal resistance initially.
- Their objective was the strategic coastal city of Alexandria, the administrative and military hub of Roman Egypt.
- Alexandria was heavily fortified and vital to both trade and Roman influence in the region.
Significance of the Egyptian Campaign:
- The conquest of Egypt was not only a political victory but also:
- Secured vast economic resources, including agricultural wealth of the Nile Valley
- Provided access to Mediterranean maritime routes
- Opened the door for the spread of Islam into North Africa
Aftermath:
- The Muslims would eventually capture Alexandria, and Egypt would become a stable and integral part of the Rashidun Caliphate.
- Over time, Egypt became:
- A major intellectual center of the Muslim world
- A hub for trade, administration, and scholarship
After the Muslims set their sights on Alexandria, the challenges they faced were immense. The city, being the capital of Egypt under Roman control, wasn’t just another settlement—it was a fortified stronghold by the sea, designed to withstand long sieges. The Romans had fortified its walls, and its position along the coast meant they could continuously receive supplies and reinforcements by sea, making it difficult for any land-based army to bring the city down.
Amr ibn al-As(May God be pleased with him) led the Muslim forces, but as time passed, the siege dragged on and resistance from within the city remained stiff. Recognizing the gravity of the situation, Amr ibn al-As appealed to Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab(May God be pleased with him) for reinforcements. Umar, ever strategic and confident in the power of sincere believers, sent a smaller force of 4,000 troops, but what made the real difference was his choice of leaders—four remarkable warriors, each of whom Umar described as being equivalent to 1,000 soldiers.
Among them was Zubair ibn al-Awwam(May God be pleased with him), whose bravery was legendary. He wasn’t new to sacrifice; even as a young boy, when he first heard of the oppression faced by the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), he rushed—shirtless and determined—to defend him. That same unwavering courage would now manifest on the towering walls of Alexandria. During the siege, with the city seemingly impenetrable and the Roman defenders confident behind their walls, Zubair made his move. He scaled the city’s high defenses using a ladder and climbed to one of the tallest towers.
From there, in full view of both his companions and the enemy, he raised his sword high and shouted “Allahu Akbar,” a Takbir that echoed across the besieged city. His voice, filled with conviction, shook the defenders’ morale, causing widespread panic among them. It wasn’t merely a sound—it symbolized their impending defeat, and the Romans, realizing that Muslim warriors had infiltrated their walls, began to falter. This psychological blow was decisive. The Muslims stormed the city, capitalizing on the moment, and Alexandria eventually fell, bringing Egypt into the fold of the Islamic Caliphate.
But Alexandria was just one chapter. The Muslims, through sheer determination, discipline, and sincerity, moved steadily across Egypt, and although the Muslims lacked a formal navy during those years, they compensated with their strategy and courage. Eventually, Muslim rule extended throughout the region, and later in Islamic history, Cairo would rise as a central city, symbolizing the stability and cultural prosperity of Muslim Egypt.
Zubair’s sword, his strength, his humility—all became part of the legendary stories of the Companions. Despite his unmatched bravery, Zubair always attributed success to the will of Allah, never to his own skills. His actions weren’t isolated; they reflected the collective spirit of a generation molded by faith, sacrifice, and unshakable belief in the promise of victory.
If you’d like, I can continue the story from there—the campaigns beyond Egypt, the early naval expeditions, or the unfolding of further Islamic expansion. Just tell me where you want to take this historical journey next.
Beautifully described—the final conquest of Alexandria marked not just a military victory, but a historic shift for the Muslim Ummah, and your recounting of that moment captures the humility and sincerity of the early Muslim leaders.
When the news of Alexandria’s fall reached Medina, it was not received with pride or arrogance, but with profound gratitude and humility. The messenger, Muawiyah ibn Khadij(May God be pleased with him), traveled from the distant front lines to deliver the historic news. His arrival in Medina reflects the simplicity of communication in those times—no grand ceremony, just a weary traveler entering the city with vital news.
Despite the heat of midday and the cultural habit of resting at that time, Muawiyah did not delay. His first instinct was to enter the mosque, the heart of Muslim communal life, to share the good news with whoever was present. It was a symbol of how closely tied victories were to the house of Allah and how the mosque was not just a place of prayer but of public affairs, unity, and spreading critical news.
The detail of the slave girl noticing Muawiyah reflects the natural vigilance and simplicity of Medina society—everyone, even a young girl, was observant and aware of the significance of messengers from afar. It also reflects the accessibility of leadership in Islam; Umar ibn al-Khattab(May God be pleased with him), despite being the leader of a vast and rapidly expanding empire, lived humbly among his people, approachable and vigilant for news affecting the Ummah.
When Muawiyah finally stood before Umar, he delivered the news succinctly and without boasting: “Good news, Allah has given us victory over Alexandria.” That was the style of the Companions—attributing success directly to Allah, not to military brilliance or worldly strategy alone.
Umar’s immediate reaction was not celebration, parades, or personal praise, but prayer. He gathered the people in the mosque, prayed with them, and publicly shared the news so that the entire community could rejoice together. Then, in private, his humility and God-consciousness emerged even more. Turning towards the Qiblah, Umar poured his heart out in du’a, expressing gratitude to Allah, acknowledging that every victory is ultimately from Him, and recognizing the immense responsibility that comes with expanding the borders of Islam.
This moment reflects how victories of the early Muslims were not driven by worldly greed, but by sincere intention, collective struggle, and deep reliance upon Allah. The conquest of Alexandria wasn’t merely about taking land; it was about fulfilling a mission to spread justice, knowledge, and the message of Islam.
If you’d like to continue, I can take you through the aftermath of Alexandria’s conquest, the Islamic governance that followed in Egypt, or the next phase of Umar ibn al-Khattab’s(May God be pleased with him) leadership. Let me know where you’d like the story to go.
Exactly, your narration highlights the true simplicity, justice, and humility that defined the leadership of Umar ibn al-Khattab(May God be pleased with him). His response to Muawiyah ibn Khadij and later to Amr ibn al-Aas reflects his deep understanding of responsibility, accountability, and the temporary nature of this world.
First, when Muawiyah brought the good news, Umar’s priorities were clear—serving the people came before personal comfort. His words:
“How can I sleep during the day? If I sleep during the night and sleep during the day, when will I fulfill the rights of the people?”
This was not a political statement; it was a sincere reflection of his belief that leadership is a heavy trust (Amanah), not a privilege. Leaders today often talk about service, but Umar lived it so literally that he barely rested, balancing nights of worship and days of public service.
Second, the simple meal Umar offered—a bit of bread soaked in oil—speaks volumes. Despite being the most powerful leader of his time, controlling a vast empire stretching from Persia to Egypt, his lifestyle remained that of the average Muslim. No extravagant banquets, no servants attending to him—just hospitality rooted in sincerity and simplicity.
Muawiyah’s reluctance to eat in front of Umar also reflects the awe and respect the companions had for him, knowing his own life was marked by extreme self-discipline and humility. Umar’s insistence that Muawiyah eat more wasn’t about food—it was about fulfilling his duty as a host, another reflection of his character.
Third, the letter from Amr ibn al-Aas about building a house for Umar in Egypt exposes the difference between Islamic leadership and worldly monarchy. Umar’s response cuts through any hint of luxury or unnecessary privilege:
“Why do I need a house in Egypt? I live in the Hijaz. Let the Muslims know, this is not my personal empire.”
Unlike emperors who build palaces in every city they control, Umar saw himself as a servant of Allah and His people, not as a ruler entitled to enjoy the spoils of victory. His only concern was ensuring justice, welfare, and security for the Ummah—not building monuments to his name.
Even in victory, his humility remained untouched. His actions reminded everyone that success in this world is temporary, and true success lies in meeting Allah with a clean heart and a fulfilled responsibility.
If you’d like, I can continue sharing more about Umar ibn al-Khattab’s unique leadership after the Egyptian conquest, or dive deeper into how the governance of newly conquered lands like Egypt was managed under Islam. Let me know which part of history you’d like to explore next.
